{"id":1289,"date":"2025-11-21T10:16:15","date_gmt":"2025-11-21T10:16:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/the-hallmarks-of-aging-keys-to-understanding-the-biological-process\/"},"modified":"2025-12-09T14:36:41","modified_gmt":"2025-12-09T14:36:41","slug":"the-hallmarks-of-aging-keys-to-understanding-the-biological-process","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/en\/the-hallmarks-of-aging-keys-to-understanding-the-biological-process\/","title":{"rendered":"The \u201cHallmarks of Aging\u201d: Key Insights for Understanding the Biological Process"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"et_pb_section_0 et_pb_section et_section_regular et_flex_section preset--group--divi-section--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-section--divi-spacing--default\">\n<div class=\"et_pb_row_0 et_pb_row et_block_row preset--group--divi-row--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-row--divi-spacing--default preset--module--divi-row--default\">\n<div class=\"et_pb_column_0 et_pb_column et_pb_column_4_4 et-last-child et_block_column et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough preset--group--divi-column--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-column--divi-spacing--default\">\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_0 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>1. Genomic Instability: DNA Damage<\/h3>\n<p>As we age, our DNA is affected by various factors, including environmental damage, radiation, and errors during cellular replication. The accumulation of mutations, double-strand breaks, and other genetic alterations is a key driver of aging, as it compromises cellular stability and contributes to the progressive deterioration of biological function over time. <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_1 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>2. Telomere Shortening: The Cellular Biological Clock<\/h3>\n<p>Telomeres are structures located at the ends of chromosomes that protect genetic material. With each cell division, telomeres shorten, eventually limiting the cell\u2019s ability to divide. This phenomenon is closely linked to cellular senescence, and telomere shortening is associated with cellular aging and the loss of tissue function.  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_group_0 et_pb_group et_pb_module et_flex_group et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough preset--group--divi-group--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-group--divi-spacing--default\">\n<div class=\"et_pb_image_0 et_pb_image et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-image--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-image--divi-spacing--default\"><span class=\"et_pb_image_wrap\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks_1.jpg\" width=\"943\" height=\"624\" srcset=\"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks_1.jpg 943w, https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks_1-480x318.jpg 480w\" sizes=\"(min-width: 0px) and (max-width: 480px) 480px, (min-width: 481px) 943px, 100vw\" class=\"wp-image-1219\" \/><\/span><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_2 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><p style=\"text-align: center;\">Figure 1. Telomere shortening over time. Source: istock.com, hafakot  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_3 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>3. Epigenetic Alterations: Changes in Gene Expression<\/h3>\n<p>Aging is also associated with modifications that affect the way genes are expressed without altering the DNA sequence itself. These epigenetic alterations influence gene regulation and disrupt cellular function. Factors such as oxidative stress and changes in the cellular environment play major roles in this process, contributing to dysfunction in cells and tissues.  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_4 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>4. Loss of Proteostasis: Breakdown of Protein Quality Control<\/h3>\n<p>Proteostasis\u2014the cellular ability to maintain protein balance\u2014is essential for proper cell function. With aging, the capacity to maintain proteins in their correct structure declines. This leads to the accumulation of misfolded or dysfunctional proteins, which are implicated in a range of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s.  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_5 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>5. Impaired Macroautophagy<\/h3>\n<p>Autophagy is a cellular process through which cells degrade and recycle damaged or unnecessary components, such as misfolded proteins and defective organelles. As we age, autophagy becomes less efficient, leading to the buildup of non-functional cellular products and a general decline in protein and organelle quality. Impaired autophagy contributes to aging by limiting the cell\u2019s ability to cope with stress and maintain integrity. This dysfunction is also linked to neurodegenerative diseases.   <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_6 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>6. Altered Nutrient Signaling: The Impact of Diet on Aging<\/h3>\n<p>With aging, the pathways that respond to nutrients become dysregulated, affecting energy homeostasis and metabolic regulation. This not only contributes to aging but is also associated with diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular conditions. Dysfunction in these metabolic pathways disrupts glucose metabolism and the body\u2019s ability to respond to stress, accelerating biological aging.  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_7 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>7. Mitochondrial Dysfunction: The Decline of the \u201cPowerhouses\u201d<\/h3>\n<p>Mitochondria\u2014often referred to as the cell\u2019s powerhouses\u2014produce the energy required for cellular functions. Over time, mitochondrial efficiency declines, increasing oxidative stress and contributing to cellular damage. Mitochondrial dysfunction is considered one of the central causes of aging, as it impairs the cell\u2019s ability to generate energy and respond to stress.  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_8 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>8. Cellular Senescence: The End of Cellular Division<\/h3>\n<p>As cells age, they can enter a state of senescence, which means they stop dividing. While senescent cells do not die, they no longer regenerate tissues or contribute to normal function. Their accumulation leads to chronic inflammation and contributes to the deterioration of organs and tissues.  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_9 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>9. Stem Cell Exhaustion: Loss of Regenerative Capacity<\/h3>\n<p>Stem cells are essential for tissue repair and regeneration. With aging, stem cells lose their ability to self-renew and differentiate into specialized cells. This decline limits the body\u2019s capacity to maintain and repair tissues, contributing to aging and increasing susceptibility to age-related diseases.  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_10 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>10. Altered Intercellular Communication: Cellular Disconnection<\/h3>\n<p>Cells communicate to coordinate essential biological processes such as immune responses and homeostasis. Aging disrupts this communication, impairing tissue function and contributing to age-related dysfunction. Altered intercellular signaling is a significant driver of aging, as it disrupts the coordinated activity needed for optimal function.  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_11 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>11. Chronic Inflammation: The Internal Fire<\/h3>\n<p>A more recently recognized hallmark is chronic, low-grade inflammation that persists as we age. This inflammation increases the risk of numerous age-related diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer. <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_12 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>12. Dysbiosis: Microbiome Imbalance<\/h3>\n<p>The gut microbiome\u2014composed of trillions of bacteria and microorganisms\u2014plays a crucial role in overall health. Dysbiosis refers to an imbalance in the composition of the microbiome.  <\/p>\n<p>With aging, the microbiome changes, affecting systemic health and contributing to aging. Dysbiosis has been linked to metabolic diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, immune dysfunction, and neurodegenerative conditions. Restoring a healthy microbiome may be essential for improving health during aging.  <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_group_1 et_pb_group et_pb_module et_flex_group et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough preset--group--divi-group--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-group--divi-spacing--default\">\n<div class=\"et_pb_image_1 et_pb_image et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-image--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-image--divi-spacing--default\"><span class=\"et_pb_image_wrap\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks_2.jpg\" width=\"638\" height=\"640\" srcset=\"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks_2.jpg 638w, https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks_2-480x482.jpg 480w\" sizes=\"(min-width: 0px) and (max-width: 480px) 480px, (min-width: 481px) 638px, 100vw\" class=\"wp-image-1220\" \/><\/span><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_13 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><p>The 12 basic \u2018Hallmarks of Aging\u2019 were described by L\u00f3pez-Ot\u00edn C, et al. (2013) The Hallmarks of Aging, Cell. <\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_14 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>Shared Hallmarks Between Aging and Cancer<\/h3>\n<p>These \"Hallmarks\" are fundamental biological processes that not only define the progression of aging but also play a crucial role in the development and advancement of cancer.<\/p>\n<p>Among them are:<\/p>\n<p><strong>1. Genomic Instability<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Genetic damage can induce mutations that disrupt normal cellular function, creating a cancer-prone environment. Cancer cells themselves often accumulate genetic and chromosomal abnormalities that promote malignancy and tumor spread. <\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Epigenetic Alterations<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In cancer, epigenetic changes may activate oncogenes or silence tumor suppressor genes, enabling uncontrolled cell proliferation.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Chronic Inflammation<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Chronic inflammation fosters a tumor-promoting environment while simultaneously worsening age-related diseases such as cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders.<\/p>\n<p><strong>4. Dysbiosis<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In cancer, an altered microbiome can contribute to tumor development by influencing immune responses and producing metabolites that affect the tumor microenvironment.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_15 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>Antagonistic Hallmarks: The Long Struggle Between Cancer and Aging<\/h3>\n<p>Despite their similarities, cancer and aging also exhibit hallmark processes with opposing effects.v <\/p>\n<p><strong>1. Telomere Shortening<\/strong><br \/>Unlike normal cells, cancer cells develop mechanisms to maintain or lengthen their telomeres, enabling unlimited division and promoting tumor growth.<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Stem Cell Exhaustion<\/strong><br \/>In cancer, abnormal activation of cancer stem cells supports tumor formation and malignancy.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_16 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>Context-Dependent Hallmarks: A Delicate Balance<\/h3>\n<p>Some hallmarks have different effects depending on cellular context. <\/p>\n<p><strong>1. Impaired Macroautophagy<\/strong><br \/>Autophagy plays a dual role: its inhibition can help cancer cells avoid cell death, while excessive autophagy can support cancer cell survival in stressful environments.<\/p>\n<p><strong>2. Cellular Senescence<\/strong><br \/>In cancer, senescent cells can exert anti-tumor effects by secreting signals that inhibit the proliferation of tumor cells.<\/p>\n<p><strong>3. Dysregulated Nutrient Signaling<\/strong><br \/>In cancer, alterations in nutrient sensing pathways can promote tumor growth, as cancer cells often require higher nutrient availability for rapid proliferation.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_17 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><h3>Conclusion: Implications and Future Perspectives<\/h3>\n<p>The Hallmarks of Aging framework has profoundly reshaped our understanding of this complex biological process. Beyond identifying the root causes of aging, these hallmarks open new avenues for developing therapies that may slow, halt, or even reverse aspects of biological aging. Ongoing research is essential to discovering interventions that can extend healthy lifespan and improve quality of life in older adults.  <\/p>\n<p>At the same time, the intricate relationship between aging and cancer\u2014sharing multiple hallmarks while opposing others\u2014presents major challenges in modern medicine, especially in designing treatments that address both conditions simultaneously.<\/p>\n<p>Understanding these interactions opens new possibilities for developing interventions that slow aging and prevent cancer without compromising healthy physiological function. Targeted therapies that restore balance across biological pathways\u2014such as inflammation modulation, nutrient signaling regulation, and the enhancement of autophagy\u2014may be key to improving healthspan and reducing cancer incidence in aging populations. <\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Article written by<br \/>Dr. Clara Font Bernet<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"et_pb_text_18 et_pb_text et_pb_bg_layout_light et_pb_module et_flex_module preset--group--divi-text--divi-background--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-spacing--default preset--group--divi-text--divi-font-header--default preset--module--divi-text--default\"><div class=\"et_pb_text_inner\"><p>L\u00f3pez-Ot\u00edn C, Blasco MA, Partridge L, Serrano M, Kroemer G. (2013) The hallmarks of aging. Cell Metabolism.<br \/>L\u00f3pez-Ot\u00edn C, Blasco MA, Partridge L, Serrano M, Kroemer G. (2023) Hallmarks of aging: An expanding universe. Cell Metabolism.<br \/>L\u00f3pez-Ot\u00edn C, Pietrocola F, Roiz-Valle D, Galluzzi L, Kroemer G. (2023) Meta-hallmarks of aging and cancer. Cell Metabolism.   <\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Aging is a complex, multifaceted process that affects all living organisms. For decades, scientists have sought to unravel its underlying mechanisms, and one of the most significant breakthroughs in this field was the publication of The Hallmarks of Aging in 2013 by Carlos L\u00f3pez-Ot\u00edn and collaborators, later expanded in 2023 in the article Hallmarks of Aging: An Expanding Universe. This work transformed our understanding of aging by proposing a set of key characteristics -known as \u201challmarks\u201d- that define the fundamental biological processes driving aging. Below, we explore these essential mechanisms in depth:   <\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":1284,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[17],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1289","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-lifestories"],"acf":[],"dsm_author":{"name":"Cactus Seny Gr\u00e0fic","avatar_url":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/bb454ee17ba8e47272d849674b566136b7ec16cd0105cc978af9d0592d1fb69a?s=96&d=mm&r=g","archive_link":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/en\/author\/cactussenygrafic\/","biodata":""},"dsm_categories":[{"term_name":"Lifestories","term_id":17,"term_link":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/en\/category\/lifestories\/"}],"dsm_attachment_categories":[],"dsm_featured_image":{"thumbnail":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-150x150.jpg","medium":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-300x206.jpg","medium_large":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-768x528.jpg","large":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-1024x704.jpg","1536x1536":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks.jpg","2048x2048":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks.jpg","et-pb-post-main-image":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-400x250.jpg","et-pb-post-main-image-fullwidth":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-1080x675.jpg","et-pb-portfolio-image":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-400x284.jpg","et-pb-portfolio-module-image":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-510x382.jpg","et-pb-portfolio-image-single":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-1080x743.jpg","et-pb-gallery-module-image-portrait":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-400x516.jpg","et-pb-post-main-image-fullwidth-large":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks.jpg","et-pb-image--responsive--desktop":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-1280x880.jpg","et-pb-image--responsive--tablet":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-980x674.jpg","et-pb-image--responsive--phone":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks-480x330.jpg","full":"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/Hallmarks.jpg"},"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.0 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>The \u201cHallmarks of Aging\u201d: Key Insights for Understanding the Biological Process - One Life<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/onelifeclinic.com\/en\/the-hallmarks-of-aging-keys-to-understanding-the-biological-process\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"The \u201cHallmarks of Aging\u201d: Key Insights for Understanding the Biological Process - One Life\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Aging is a complex, multifaceted process that affects all living organisms. For decades, scientists have sought to unravel its underlying mechanisms, and one of the most significant breakthroughs in this field was the publication of The Hallmarks of Aging in 2013 by Carlos L\u00f3pez-Ot\u00edn and collaborators, later expanded in 2023 in the article Hallmarks of Aging: An Expanding Universe. This work transformed our understanding of aging by proposing a set of key characteristics -known as \u201challmarks\u201d- that define the fundamental biological processes driving aging. 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